Research and its Types with Reference to Data Collection and Methods

What is Research?

From the decades, to unfold the hidden reality and overcome the thrust of solving quires, scientists are doing research. Nunan (1992) discussed that the process of research, stands on three major elements, which makes it systematic: 1) quire or hypotheses 2) data, 3) and analysis leading to the exposition of that data through logical reasoning (p. 3). Moreover, Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), divided logical reasoning in two: inductive or deductive. The process of reasoning in which research proposes general ideas from specific number of related ideas, events or experiences, called as inductive reasoning. In contrast, deductive reasoner moves from general ideas, principles or observations to the specific conclusion (p. 4).

According to Dornyei (2007), finding the answers to the question through the systematic way called as research. For Hatch and Lazaraton (1991), research is the organized and systematic procedure of search to answering the question (as cited in, Dornyei, 2007, p. 15). To synthesis, research is a process, which proceeds systematically with the aim of inquiring the hidden ideas by analyzing and interpreting the specialized data with the help of logical reasoning.

Types of Research

This section presents all the different types of the research with reference to the data collection and methodology.

1. Primary Research

2. Secondary Research

3. Quantitative Research

3.1 Survey Research

3.2 Correlational Research

3.3 Casual-Comparative Research

3.4 Experimental Research

4. Qualitative Research

4.1 Narrative Research

4.2 Ethnographic Research

4.3 Case Study Research

5. Statistical Research

6. Mixed Method Research

The scientists and the researchers have introduced different types of research so far as above enlisted. Brown (1988) given the classification of research on the bases of collection of data as; primary and secondary research, furthermore, he said the primary research can be either case study or a statistical study. Moreover, he discussed the subdivision of statistical research in survey and experimental research (as cited in Nunan, 1992, p. 8-9). Nunan (1992) introduced two types of research name as deductive and inductive research (p. 12). Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), shown different classification of the research on the bases of 1) methods, 2) analysis and 3) purposes and also introduced their learner with the subdivision of these branches, types or paradigms for making a clear distinction which was not that much clear before, this study will follow the same distribution criteria. Denzin (1978) firstly introduced the key term mixed methods research in his work The Research Act (as cited in Dornyei, 2007, p. 44). This mixed method research involves the important key features of both qualitative and quantitative research to get much better results. Meanwhile, many other research methods and approaches, developed in the field of research to improve the research’s quality. An extensive compilation of types of research is explained below.

Classification: Data Collection and Methods

In the following section classification has been made with regards to data collection and methodology.

1. Primary Research

Brown (1988) described it as the research, derived from the source as a language learning students’ group noun as primary source (as cited in Nunan, 1992, p. 8). According to Dornyei (2007), if the research is having, the characteristics like; original data, analysis of data and generating results by one’s own self for leading the conclusion. During arguing about primary research, he also described three types of primary data: Quantitative, Qualitative and Language data (p. 19).

Table 1: Key Features of Primary Research

Brown (1988)	Dornyei (2007)
Original or primary data	Original data
Self-analyzed	One’s own self for leading the conclusion.

2. Secondary Research

Brown (1988) discussed, this research involves the reviewing the literature in a particular field of study and synthesis of others works. It is derived from the secondary source or research e.g., books, articles or research works etc., (as cited in Nunan, 1992).

Similarly, Dornyei (2007) quoted the idea of Brown that reviewing the works of the previous researchers so that, researchers could save their time and energy and called it as secondary research (p. 16).

Table 2: Key Features of Secondary Research

Brown (1988) as cited in Nunan (1992)	Brown (1988) as cited in Dornyei (2007)
Secondary data	Reviewing previous works
Synthesis of others work.

3. Quantitative Research

According to Nunan (1992) the research which contains the properties like; objective, outcome oriented, generalizable and assumes the facts which are somehow external (p. 3). Similarly, Gay, Mills and Airasian, (2012) said quantitative research deals with the collection and the analysis of the large number of numerical data in reference to the particular quire. Quantitative researcher assumes something called as hypothesis and then examines the data according to the systematic and organized procedure, statistically (p. 7).

Dornyei (2007) defined it as the research, which involves the numerical data collection procedure and analyzed through statistical methods. He also introduced some key attributes like, study of variables, predetermined categorization, objectivity of statistical analysis and generalizability of results.

Table 3: Key Features of Quantitative Research

Nunan (1992)	Gay Mills and Airasian  (2012)	Dornyei (2007)
Controlled measurement	Numerical or Quantifiable data	Study of variables
Objective	Hypothesis and research procedure designed before starting the study.	Tightly controlled Process
Outcome- oriented	Large sample size	Meaning in the general
Reliable and replicable	Statistical analysis	Predetermined categorization
Assume a stable reality.	Researcher as outsider	Formalized system of statistics
Researcher as an outsider	Generalizable	To archive Macro-perspective
Hypothetical deductive	Researcher is less interactive.	Assess objective reality.
Reliable	Not lengthy time schedule	Using larger sample

3.1 Survey Research 

According to Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), survey research deals with the collecting data for testing the hypothesis. It could be questionnaire or people’s opinion Performa (p. 183). Similarly, Brown (as cited in Nunan, 1992) said research through questionnaires to understand the behavior, opinion or features of particular group of participants. This helps the research in statistical research to collect and analyze the data for primary research (p. 8).

Table 4: Key Features of Survey Research

Nunan (1992)	Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012)
Questionnaire	Test Hypotheses
Involves, knowing about behavior, opinion or characteristics of participants.	Data collection through questionnaires or interviews
Survey or computational survey	Survey instrument for data collection
	People’s opinion
	Larger the population, smaller the sample (e.g., 100 = P, 50% = S or 1500 = 20% S)
	Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and correlational methods

3.2 Correlational Research

As the name shows that, it is about the relation between two research. Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), introduced it as retrieving the relation between two research by collecting the data that at which extant relation exists between two or more quantitative research in the presence of variables. These variables could be height, gender, nationality, age, intelligence, etc., (p. 9).

Table 5: Key Features of Correlational Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012, p. 204)

Variables to be investigated can be scored.

Small size of sample

Gives understanding that at which extant variables are related or not between two research.  Relationship Study

No casual relation

3.3 Casual-Comparative Research

It is the research of finding and determining the cause or reason to understand the difference between groups or individuals at the behavioral or status level. Also stated that in this research two groups already been formed which are already different from each other (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012, p. 228-235).

Table 6: Key Features of Casual-Comparative Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012)

Establishing two groups, already having contrastive variables

Identifying the reasons behind those differences

3.4 Experimental Research

Brown (as citied in Nunan, 1992, p. 8-9) discussed that experimental research is a controlled kind of research, under the paradigm of which behaviors are judged through the observation and investigation process. He also stated that it should have the characteristics like, logical reasoning supported by tangible data, which could be retestable or replicable and presentable in simplified form (Brown 1998). Giving argument on experimental research, Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), described that in this research, collecting the data from randomly selected groups of the participants accurse (p. 235). They also described that there should be an independent variable to observe the effect on dependent variables (p. 249).

Table 7: Key Features of Experimental Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012, p. 250)	Nunan (1992)
Declaring independent variable	Behavioral examination
Hypothesis statement to examine the causalities between variables.	Logical, tangible and retestable
Experimental and controlled group

4. Qualitative Research

Nunan (2012) discussed that qualitative research is subjective because the knowledge is relative. This research is ungeneralizable and soft or flexible, metaphorically (p. 3). According to (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012) qualitative research deals with the analysis of the non-numerical and visual data to get the deep understanding of particular phenomenon. It contains the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting the data, which found in visual form (p. 7). Similarly, Dornyei (2007) proposed that this type of research includes open-ended, non-numerical data and also the process of analysis is other than statistical analysis (p. 24).

Table 8: Key Features of Qualitative Research

Nunan (1992)	Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012)	Dornyei (2007)
Qualitative Methods	Non-numerical, visual data	Open-ended & non-numerical
Uncontrolled and naturalistic observation	Smaller size of data	Analysis through non-statistical methods
Subjectivity	Categorizing and organizing data to produce a descriptive, narrative synthesis.	In-depth understanding
Researcher as insider	Higher interaction	Meaning in particular scenario
Inductive	Meaning is in context that varies person to person.	Emergent and flexible
Process oriented	Lengthy time period	Individual sensitive research
Valid		To achieve Micro-perspective
Assumes dynamic reality.		Social phenomena and natural setting
		Small sample size

4.1 Narrative Research

The study involves the experiences of humans around them related to world and the methodology, which helps to describe the whole story to others. It discusses about understanding of educational and societal issues to solve them (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012, p. 399).

Table 9: Key Features of Narrative Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012, p. 400)

Experience of individual

Constructing story (e.g., by collecting data through interviews)

Research-participant collaboration

Contraction through the question, “and then what happened.”

4.2 Ethnographic Research

The research in which researcher collects the data from the natural environment rather than staying in lab, with direct observation is called as ethnographic research. LeCompte and Preissle (1993) argued that it is process oriented research involving the stages like inquiry, outcome and formation of the results, it results in realistic reconstruction of the particular area which research is studying (as cited in Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007, p. 168).

Table 10: Key Features of Ethnographic Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012, p. 422)

Performed in natural setting.

Inductive, interactive and repetitious collection

About ethical issues

4.3 Case Study Research

According to Gay, Mills and Airasian, (2012) Case study research deals with the bound system because it contains smaller number of participants, from one individual to smaller group (p. 443). Brown (1988) considered it as the subbranch of primary research because this research also involves the primary data according to the purpose of the research. This research relies on an individual or group of limited participants, involves the documentation related to the aspects of case like language development over regular and extended time-period. It could also perform synthesizing the research performed by the others or on others research data (as cited in Nunan, 1992, p. 8).

Table 11: Key Features of Case Study

Nunan (1992)	Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012)
Language Development	Descriptive and Heuristic or Subjective
Extended time-period	Work on bound system or unit of study
Limited number of individuals	Narrative Style to present relation between participants and study

5. Statistical Research

In this method, discussed by Brown (1988), statistical analyzes are used to estimate the probability or likelihood that the outcomes did not happen by chance alone. Research mainly tries to test the behaviors of the participants under the observation under the presence of certain variables and analyzing the data statistically (as cited in Nunan, 1992).

Table 12: Key Features of Statistical Research

Brown (1988) as cited in Nunan (1992)

Statistical analysis

Test the behaviors of the participants.

Presence of certain variables

6. Mixed Method Research

It is the amalgamation or hybridization of both the qualitative and quantitative research methodologies as Dornyei (2007) considered it as some sort of combination of those two major dichotomous methodologies (p. 45). Similarly, Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012), also discussed this methodology as the combination of quantitative and qualitative research through the helpful hybridization, which could not be possible using either on or the other (p. 483).

Someone can also say that qualitative and quantitative research help each other by contributing to research by either cooperatively directed by one or providing feedback through the other one. For the sake of much understanding, research can use naturalistic and contextual approaches for deep understanding and then inductive approach for the generalization of the results (Maxwell and Loomis2003, as cited in Dornyei, 2007, p. 43).

Table 13: Key Features of Mixed-Method Research

Gay, Mills and Airasian (2012, p. 482)	Dornyei (2007, p. 42-43)
Qualitative and quantitative type of data collected equally.	Mixed model and methods study
Sequence of the data from both sides should be same	Research in circular pathway
Either the combined or separated analysis

References

Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, Oxford University Press, pp. 15-45.

Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. W. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Pearson Higher Ed, p.16.

Nunan, D., & David, N. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge University Press, pp. 3-18.